Factors and Forces of Comparative Education

                                     Factors and Forces of Comparative Education

Introduction:

                  With the development of social science toward the end of 19^th century ,it has been increasingly realized there is a close connection between education and society.It becomes a concern of Comparative Education to study the relationship between education and society by analyzing the historical forces  and other factors that were responsible in shaping the society and it’s institutions.

Meaning of factors & forces:

            “Something that actively contributes to the production of a result,” “a constituent part”, “a distinct part of a composite device.”

                    We know education as the mirror of society and educational institutions as society in miniature.Factors are more or less,the same that have influenced the development or growth of an individual or society.

        Factors and forces which affect the system of comparative education can be broadly devided into three types:

1.      Natural factors

2.      Spiritual factors

3.      Secular factors

1.NATURAL FACTORS:

                        There are certain natural factorsthat have influenced the system of comparative education.These factors sre natural as well as social.Natural factors includes the following factors:

A.     Racial factor

B.     Lingustic factor

C.     Historical factor

D.     Social factor

E.      Geographical factor

F.      Economical factor

G.     Political factor

A.Racial factor:

               In each country a number of races exist. These races influence its educational system. The race which considers itself superior to others tries to rule over them. If it succeeds in this attempt, then it tries to strengthen its control on them by developing a particular educational system.

                   For example, the French and the British people established their colonies in Africa. Because they were ‘white’, these people thought that they were superior to the natives of Africa. So they developed a special kind of educational system to strengthen their control over the black natives.

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B. Linguistic Factors:

                    The individual has to learn the language of the group in which he is born. The culture and civilisation of a country are expressed through its language although there are other features as well which unmistakably point to its culture and civilisation.

                  However, the importance of the language cannot be denied. In the educational system of a country its language occupies a special place. We know that if the mother tongue is the medium of instruction, the people are generally of strong national character and if the medium is a foreign language the national character becomes weak.

                       It is true that there are many other factors that are responsible for moulding the national character, but the medium of instruction has its own special importance, in the educational system. Those educational problems of a country which are related with its cultural elements can be understood on the basis of linguistic factors stated above.

C.Historical Factor:

                The historical factor is closely related to political and religious as well as geographic position and economic condition. Each country of the world has its own history that shapes the nations aims, aspirations, activities and destiny. This is often reflected through the educational system.

                 Colonialism has been an important historical factor that can be said to have shaped the education system of many African countries and others in the world. For example, the Berlin conference in 1815 was dabbed the scramble for Africa. At this conference the European powers shared African states like a cake. This latter meant that; the colonies had to take up much of what was in their colonial masters homeland and to date features in education of these former colonial master are reflected in their former colonies.

D.Social Factor:

            Education reflects the social patterns of society.Educational change tends to follow social changes.As the society changes through the interplay of social needs,techniques and values,education has to change in response to these social conditions.

          . As such the education system is usually seen as a social factor which must reflect the ethos of the people that it serves. Every society consist of human beings and in whatever state they find themselves they always have some kind of educational system. This form of education of the society will always strive to perpetuate and protect its traditions and aspirations. As such a close study and analysis of each education system will always reveal the cultural concept and pattern of the community in question. Also the social patterns of the people in any particular community or country are reflected in its system of education.

E.Geographical Factor:

                      The geographical position has its inevitable impact on the culture, civilisation and education of a nation. The various countries of the world have different geographical positions. Therefore, their modes of living, civilization, culture, social institutions and educational systems are also different.The climate of a cold country is different from that of a tropical one. Therefore, ways of living and social organisation of the two types of countries are not the same. Serial systems influence the educational organisation.

                        

                       An agricultural country emphasises agricultural education in its educational system, and an industrial country pays special attention to technological and-industrial subjects in the organisation of its curriculum. In a cold country there is a long winter vacation and in a hot country a long summer vacation. Evidently, the educational structure of a country is conditioned by its geographical situation.

 

F.Economic Factor:

            The educational system of a country is closely related with its economic condition. The aims and curriculum of education are framed according to the economic condition of the land. The belief about the economic system as adhered to by a country is inculcated in the citizens.

          For example, under the socialistic economic system, the State is the owner of all property. Therefore at the very primary stage of education children are given the impression that all property belongs to the State and each individual has to protect it. In the democracies like U.S.A. and India the situation is quite different. In these two countries the individual property is recognised. Evidently, the economic factor is a very effective element and in the study of comparative education it occupies a special place.

 

G. Political Factor:

             The political factor dictates the kind of administration the system of education will have. They also underlie the features in education system and the functioning of the same.On the basis of the political outlook and belief of a country policy decisions are taken regarding fundamental questions in education.

            The influetial political groups of the country determine the educational policy according to their social and political objectives.So that the younger children learn ideology of the influetial group of the society.

 

 

2.SPIRITUAL FACTORS:

A.     Religious factor

B.     Philosophicl factor

C.     Moral factor

 

 

A.Religious factors:

                      Religion occupies a very important place in an individual’s  life. History is testimony of the fact that thousands of persons have sacrificed their lives for the sake of religion. The history of Europe is full of such examples. In a religious country, the public is generally conservative and resents any change in its old traditions.

                     Therefore in the organisation of an educational system we have to be careful about the religious sentiments of the people. In an industrialised country, due to scientific developments, old traditions usually begin to break-down and the society is re-constructed according to the needs of the time. Education has to pay a special role in this reconstruction.

                    Therefore, the religious factor cannot be ignored in the study of comparative education. Indeed, a comparative discussion of how different religious loyalties have given birth to various educational systems in different countries of the world will be very interesting.

 

B.The Philosophical Factor:

                         The education system of a country is influenced by the philosophy of the land. Philosophy influences life, therefore, its influence on education is quite natural.For example, in ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle based the educational system of the country on a particular philosophy of life and entrusted the administration of the country to philosophers.

                     In ancient India the Gurukul system of education was based on Vedic philosophy of life. The educational system in the Buddhist period as obtained in Vihars and monasteries based on Buddhist philosophy.

                  The Dayanand Anglo Vedic Colleges of modem India are based on the philosophy of life propounded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. Similarly, there are some iqstitutions based on Sri Aurobindo’s philosophy.

                 

C.The Moral Factor:

                    Some countries emphasise moral principles and some religious. In a democratic country moral behaviour of each citizen is specially emphasized, because moral behaviour is the soul of democracy.

                      Thus in countries with a democratic setup, development of moral behaviour is specially emphasized as an aim of education as in Japan, Switzerland, Great Britain, India and U.S.A. Thus the moral factor is a very important element in the study of comparative education.

3.SECULAR FACTORS:

                         Secularism came to be known as a social and ethical system.It is a belief that the state ,moral,education etc., should be independent of religion.

                                    Besides religion there are secular factors which deeply influenced the education system of a country.N.Hans classified these factors into following types:

A.     Factors of Humanism

B.     Factors of Socialism

C.     Factors of Naturalism

D.     Factors of Democracy

A. Factors of Humanism:

                 Towards the close of the middle ages humanistic ideas were spread in Europe with the view to make man free of blind superstitions and to base his life on scientific ways. This spirit ultimately wanted to give full scope for the development of an individual. Humanism keeps human welfare as its prime aim. Man is considered to be the measure of everything. 

  

                       The effect of humanism on education was seen in France during the seventeenth century when education was separated from the Church and the State was made responsible for education of its citizens.

                    Today we consider only that curriculum and method of teaching good which promotes the growth of the individual. Thus we find that the humanistic factor influences education and we cannot ignore it in the study of comparative education.

B.Factors of Socialism:

                   The impact of socialism may be sensed in the various aspects of our life to-day. Plato’s ideas had the seeds of socialism. He advocated the state control of rearing and bringing up the children. Accordingly, he stood for complete state control over the development of education of children.

                   This ideology influenced education in Greece for sometime in due course. Sir Thomas More of England in his book “Utopia” advocated socialistic principles in accordance with Plato’s ideas. He held that the state must arrange for public education in order that the citizen may fulfill his duties to the state.

3.The Factor of Nationalism:

                      For strengthening the sense of unity the spirit of nationalism is created in a country. This is evident in India particularly after 1947. Here there are various castes, religions and languages. Regionalism erodes the very foundation of our national life.

                     In spite of these differences, our attention is drawn to the social, cultural and political unity inherent in our country in order to strengthen the national spirit. Accordingly, in our aims regarding education and the curriculum, special attention is given to the development of this sense of unity in the children.

                      However, we have to note that the spirit of nationalism in a country may be helpful only when the international outlook is not forgotten, because then, one may become blind to the inadequacies of one’s own country.

4. The Democratic Factor:

                             In democracy we find two forms, in one form political equality is emphasized and in another social unity. Within the first form come, U.S.A, Great Britain, France, India, Japan, etc. and in the other form China and North Korea may be mentioned. Because of its particular kind of democratic ideologies, each country has nurtured a special type of education.

                         The differences found in their educational patterns are because of their different democratic faiths which are quite evident in their different aims, organisations and contents of education. In the study of comparative education we have to note these differences in order to understand the underlying elements correctly.

             In 1956 J.F. Gramer and G.S. Browne improved upon this estimation of factors in their work ‘Contemporary Education.’They have said that the system of education of a particular country is guided by the following factors:

·        Sense of national unity.

·        General economic situation.

·        Basic beliefs and traditions,including religious and cultural heritage.

·        Status of progressive educational thought.

·        Language problem.

·        Attitude towards international co-operation and understanding

Concept of Comparative Education

Comparative Education

Education

                                Education is very difficult to pin to a particular definition, because the concept may be perceived from different angles. The concept has been traced to two Latin words. The Latin words are (a) educere and (b) educare. While educere can be interpreted as "to draw out" or "to lead out", Educare on the other hand means "to nourish" "to bring up or "to raise". The interpretations of two Latin words no doubt, are more than what can be offered by the school alone.

The Meaning of Comparative Education

           

                                         Naturally, human beings are in the habit of making comparison of the things that are around them particularly when such things exist in different places. This may be done as a result of man's desire to know the relationship existing between, or among the things being compared.

             Comparison can take place wherever we have two or more things at the same time either for the purpose of having a better understanding of the relationship existing between them or for the purpose of having a better choice. Like other concepts, comparative education is a concept that attracts varied interpretations or definitions. In other words, there are as many definitions as there are many Educational omparativists.

Adeyinka (1994) gives the following definitions for the concept:

(a) A study of two or more education systems.

(b) A study of how the philosophy, objectives and aims, policy and practice of education in other countries influence the general development, policy and practice of education in a particular country.

(c) A study of how the development of education in the past, across the ages and continents, has influenced the development of education in particular countries.

(d) A study of the school systems of two or more countries, and of the administrative machineries set up to implement or to control the implementation of government policies at various levels of education systems.

Definitions:

According to Good (1962),Comparative Education “is a field of study dealing with the comparison of current educational theory and practice in different countries for the purpose of broadening and deepening understanding of educational problems beyond the boundaries of one's own country.”

According to Kandel (1957), “Comparative Education is the comparison of various philosophies of education based not only on theories but the actual practices which prevail from this above definition.”

 Mallinson (1975) defines the subject as “a systematic examination of other cultures and other systems of education deriving from those cultures in order to discover resemblances and differences, and why variant solutions have been attempted (and with what result) to problems that are often common to all.”

The Scope of Comparative Education:

The term "scope" according to Longman dictionary of contemporary English could mean:

(a) The area within the limit of a question, subject, action etc.

(b) Space or chance for actions or thought.

From the above, scope of comparative education means the area or areas covered by the discipline. The scope of the subject also connotes the various subjects or disciplines from where Comparative education draws its information directly or indirectly. A critical look at the various definitions of the discipline no doubt reveals that

There are five perspectives that capture the scope of comparative education. These are;

  i) The subject matter and content; this covers the essential components of educational systems such as structure, aims, content or curriculum, administration, financing, teacher education.

ii) Geographical units of study; these comprises intra-national, international, regional, continental and global or world systems studies and analysis.

iii) Ideological scope; this compares countries' educational systems on the basis of different political, social and economic ideologies. For example, democratic, communism, socialist, capitalist, free market and mixed economies.

iv) Thematic scope; this scope focuses on educational themes, topical issues or problems and compares them within one or more geographical units. For example free primary and secondary education, universal primary education, education for all and universal higher education.

v)The historical or spatial scope; this deals with the study of the historical development of the discipline from the earliest (pre-historic) phase known as the period of Travelers' Tales to the modern phase known as the period of social science perspectives.

The Purpose of Comparative Education:

                             Comparative education like other disciplines being offered in the education institutions is not a purposeless subject. In other words, the subject has some goals which it aims at achieving.

While giving the purpose of comparative education,

 Hans (1992) concludes that, the analytical study of these factors from historical perspective and the comparison of attempted solution of resultant problems are the main purpose of comparative education.

It can be concluded from the above that comparative education tries to compare educational problems as well as the solutions applied to such problems with a view to helping one's educational practices.

Reasons for Studying Comparative Education include:

(a) To assist in the understanding of one's educational institutions as well as educational practices.

(b) To assist in the understanding of the factors that are responsible for various educational changes.

(c) To educate the students and teachers on the procedure through which educational changes occur.

(d) To contribute not only to the educational development of the society but also to the general development of the society.

(e) To serve as an academic discipline.

(f) To assist in solving one's educational problems

(g) To open one's eyes to the educational philosophies, theories and practices of other countries.

(h) To assist both the students and teachers of discipline in gathering reliable information concerning educational system.

(i) To assist in the Promotion of international relationship.

(j) To contribute to the formulation of a country's educational systems.

Bloom's Taxonomy

      Bloom's Taxonomy

 What is Taxonomy?

                         Taxonomy means 'a set of classification principles', or 'structure', and Domain simply means 'category'. Taxonomy -- from Greek taxis, meaning arrangement or division, and nomos, meaning law -- is the science of classification according to a predetermined system.

 Bloom's Taxonomy:

                     In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. Bloom's Taxonomy divides educational objectives into learning domains, with the understanding that higher levels of learning are dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels.

THE THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING:

The committee identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom, et al. 1956):

v  Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, ie., knowledge, or 'think')

v  Affective domain (feelings, emotions and behaviour, ie., attitude, or 'feel')

v  Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, ie., skills, or 'do')

Cognitive domain :

                   The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories of cognitive an processes:-

1.knowledge:

A.knowledge of specifics

·          knowledge of terminology

·          knowledge of specific facts

B. knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics

·         knowledge of conventions

·         knowledge of trends and sequences

·         knowledge of classification and categories

·         knowledge of criteria

·         knowledge of methodology

C. knowledge of universal and abstractions in a field

·         knowledge of principles and generalisations

·         knowledge of theoriws and structures

2.Comprehension:

A.Translation

B.Interpretation

C.Explanation

3.Application

4.Analysis:

A.Analysis of elements

B. Analysis of relationships

C. Analysis of organisational principles

5.Synthesis:

A.    Production of unique communication

B.     Production of a plan

C.     Derivation of a set of abstract relations

6.Evaluation:

A.    Judgement in terms of internal evidence

B.     Judgement in terms of external criteria

EXPLANATIONS:

1.KNOWLEDGE:

                             It is is defined as remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.

• Represents the lowest level of knowledge
• Imparts knowledge that needs to be recalled or recognized
• Learners are assessed on their ability to recall or recognize facts

Verbs: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state.

2,COMPREHENSION:

                      It is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by translating material from one form to another (words to numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), and by estimating furture trends (predicting consequences or effects). These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and represent the lowest level of understanding.

·         Imparts knowledge that needs to be assimilated in order to interpret / make a decision

·         Assumes recall of facts (Level 1) has been mastered

·         Learners are assessed on comprehension and the resulting ability to make a decision in a given situation

Verbs: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate.

 Application :

             It refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding than those under comprehension.

• Used to teach skills for application in various circumstances
• Assumes recall of facts (Level 1) and assimilation have been mastered (Level 2)
• Learners are assessed on their ability to apply a skill in a new situation

Verbs: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.

Analysis:

                        It refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved. Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and application becasue they require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material.

·         Used to teach analysis of a situation to arrive at a decision/compare/differentiate

·         Assumes recall of facts, assimilation, and application (Level 3) have been mastered

·         Learners are assessed on their ability to analyze, compare, differentiate, or justify

Verbs: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.

Synthesis :

                                It refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes in this area stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or structures.

·         Used to teach how to create new entities from known information/objects/facts

·         Assumes mastery of all previous cognitive levels

·         Learners are assessed on their ability to combine, summarize, organize

Verbs: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.

Evaluation:

                  It is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgements are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgements based on clearly defined criteria.

·         Used to teach knowledge that will enable learners to make judgments

·         Considers all previous levels of knowledge

·         Learners are assessed on their ability to evaluate new entities

Verbs: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate

.

 Affective Domain:

                             The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally,such as feelings,values,appreciation,enthusism,motivations and attitudes.

                                              Taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain proposed  by Krathwohl,Bloom &Maria(1964),is presented:-

1.      Receiving(attending):

a)      Awareness

b)      Willingness to receive

c)      Controlled or selected attention

     2.Responding:

a)      Acquiesence in responding

b)      Wiilingness to repond

c)      Satisfaction in reponse

    3.Valuing:

a)      Acceptance of a value

b)      Preference for a value

c)      Commitment

  4.Organisation:

a)      Conceptualization of a value

b)      Organisation of a value system

5.Characterization by a value:

a)      Generalised chat

b)      Characterization

This can be diagramatically presented as:-  

         

                   

EXPLANATION:

 

Receiving

                              Receiving is the lowest level of the affective domain. It is simply the awareness of feelings and emotions. It involves passively paying attention and being aware of the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena. Without this level, no learning can occur. If information is never received and cannot be remembered.

Examples: Listening attentively to someone, watching a movie, listening to a lecture, watching waves crash on the sand.

 Verbs: Accept,Attend,Develop,Recognize.Notice,Look,Share

 

Responding

                                   This level involves actively participating in the learning process. You are not only aware of a stimulus, but you react or respond to it in some way.

Examples: Having a conversation, participating in a group discussion, giving a presentation, complying with procedures, or following directions.

 Verbs: Complete,Comply,Cooperate,Discuss,Examine,Obey,Respond

 

Valuing

                                        Valuing is the ability to see the worth of something and express it. Valuing is concerned with the worth you attach to a particular object, phenomenon, behavior, or piece of information.This level ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment.

Examples: Proposing a plan to improve team skills, supporting ideas to increase proficiency, or informing leaders of possible issues.

Verbs: Accept, Defend ,Devote, Pursue, Seek,Argue,Display

 Organisation:

                                  Organizing involves putting together different values, information, and ideas then relating them to already held beliefs to bring it into an internally consistent philosophy. Essentially, it is ability to prioritize one value over another and create a unique value system. The focus of this level is on comparing, relating, and assessing values to create that unique value system.

Examples: Spending more time studying then playing sports, recognizing the need for balance between work and family, or prioritizing time effectively to meet goals.

Verbs: Codify ,Discriminate,Display,Order,Organize,Systematize,Weigh

 Characterizing

                        This is the highest of the affective domain. It is about internalizing values. It means acting consistently in accordance with the set of values you have internalized and your characterization or philosophy about life. Essentially, you internalize values and let them control or guide your behavior.

Examples: You spend time with your family, you reframe from using profanity, and you make friends based on personally and not looks.

 

Verbs: Internalize,Verify,Disply,Internalize,Resolve

                                   

Psychomotor Domain:

                   The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus, psychomotor skills rage from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to more complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or dancing.

Taxonomy of objectives in the psychomotor domain:

                                     It was Simpson(Simpson,1966) who first presented the classification of objectives in the psychomotor domain.Later it got modified by Harrow(1972) as:-

Reflex movements

                     Objectives at this level include reflexes that involve one segmental or reflexes of the spine and movements that may involve more than one segmented portion of the spine as intersegmental reflexes (e.g., involuntary muscle contraction). These movements are involuntary being either present at birth or emerging through maturation.

Baic fundamental movements

                       Objectives in this area refer to skills or movements or behaviors related to walking, running, jumping, pushing, pulling and manipulating. They are often components for more complex actions.

Perceptual abilities

                        Objectives in this area should address skills related to kinesthetic (bodily movements), visual, auditory, tactile (touch), or coordination abilities as they are related to the ability to take in information from the environment and react.

Physical abilities

                     Objectives in this area should be related to endurance, flexibility, agility, strength, reaction-response time or dexterity.

Skilled movements

                     Objectives in this area refer to skills and movements that must be learned for games, sports, dances, performances, or for the arts.

Nondiscursive communication

                    Objectives in this area refer to expressive movements through posture, gestures, facial expressions, and/or creative movements like those in mime or ballet.  These movements refer to interpretative movements that communicate meaning without the aid of verbal commands or help.

 Taxonomy of Psychomotor Objectives:

1.Imitation:

a)      Impulsion

b)      Overt repition

2.Manipulation:

a)      Following direction

b)      Selection

c)      Fixation

3.Precision:

a)      Reproduction

b)      Control

4.Articulation:

a)      Sequence

b)      Harmony

5.Naturalization:

a)      Automatization

b)      Interiorization

                                                 

Explanation:

1.    IMITATION:

                         Imitation is the lowest level of the objectives in the psychomotor domain. When the student is exposed to an observable action, he begins to make a covert imitation of the action. Imitation begins with inner rehearsal of the muscular system guided an inner push or an impulse to imitate action. Such covert behaviour appears to be the starting point in the growth of psychomotor skill.

Verbs: copy, follow, replicate, repeat, adhere

2.      MANIPULATION:

                          At this level, the student should be capable of performing an act according to instructions rather than just on basis of observation as in the case at the level of imitation. He begins to attain skill in manipulating chosen elements with sufficient practice of selected action. At the level of performance is fairly well set.

Verbs: re-create, build, perform, execute, implement

3.      PRECISION:

                          At the level of precision, the proficiency of performance reaches a higher level of reinforcement in reproducing of performance reaches a higher level of reinforcement in reproducing a given act. The student does not need a model to reproduce or to guide his/her action. He is able to increase or decrease the speed of the action and introduce several variations according to specific requirements of different situations.

Verbs: demonstrate, complete, show, perfect, calibrate, control,

4.      ARTICULATION:

                       This category behaviour emphasizes the coordination of a series of acts by establishing an appropriate sequence and accomplishing harmony or internal consistency among different acts The student becomes able to perform them in a harmonious manner with appropriate articulation in terms of time, speed and other relevant variables. He develops proficiency a number of related acts simultaneously and sequentially and thereby can produce the desired effect.

Verbs: construct, solve, combine, coordinate, integrate, adapt, develop, formulate, modify, master

5.NATURALISATION:

                    This is the highest level of behaviour in the psychomotor domain. This category refers to naturalization of the single act or a series of articulated acts. At this stage, the skill of performance attained its highest level of proficiency and the act is performed with the least expenditure of psychic energy. The student does not even know that the act is being performed, until he is obstructed or severely disturbed. In other words, the habit of performance becomes his second nature.

Verbs: design, specify, manage, invent, project-manage