Methods of Data Collection

Methods of Data Collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/ plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.

·        The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.

·        The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.

The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection. The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation. We describe the different methods of data collection, with the pros and cons of each method.

Collection of Primary Data

·        We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.

·         This, in other words, means an experiment refers to an investigation in which a factor or variable under test is isolated and its effect(s) measured.

·        In an experiment the investigator measures the effects of an experiment which he conducts intentionally. Survey refers to the method of securing information concerning a phenomena under study from all or a selected number of respondents of the concerned universe.

·        In a survey, the investigator examines those phenomena which exist in the universe independent of his action. The difference between an experiment and a survey can be depicted as under

There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are:

(i)   Observation method,

(ii)   Interview method,

(iii)  Questionnaires,

(iv)  Schedules, and

(v) Other methods which include

(a) Warranty cards;

(b) Distributor audits;

(c) Pantry audits;

(d) Consumer panels;

(e) Using mechanical devices;

(f) Through projective techniques;

(g) Depth interviews, and

(h) Content analysis.

We briefly take up each method separately.

        i.            Observation Method

·        The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural sciences.

·        In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation.

·        Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.

·        Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent.

·        For instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch.

·        The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.

·        Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.

·        Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.

·        This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other

However, observation method has various limitations.

·        Firstly, it is an expensive method.

·        Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.

·        Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.

While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like:

a.       What should be observed?

b.      How the observations should be recorded?

c.       Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured?

ü  In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured observation.

ü  But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation.

ü  Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.

ü  If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as the participant observation.

ü  But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant observation. (When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.)

There are several merits of the participant type of observation:

(i) The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group.

(ii) The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion.

(iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.

But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz.,

         i.            the observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally;

       ii.            the problem of observation-control is not solved;

      iii.            and it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.

Controlled and uncontrolled observation:

·        If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation.

·        In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments. The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons.

·        It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient time for observing it.

·        The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of subjective interpretation. There is also the danger of having the feeling that we know more about the observed phenomena than we actually do.

·        When observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation.

·        In controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and standardisation.

·        Such observation has a tendency to supply formalised data upon which generalisations can be built with some degree of assurance.

·        Controlled observation takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or under controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory researches.

Interview Method

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

a)      Personal interviews:

·        Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.)

·        This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned.

·        He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected. This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.

·        But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique may not be used.

·        In such cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded.

·        Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government to carry on investigations make use of this method.

·        The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a structured way. As such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardised techniques of recording.

·        Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed.

·        As against it, the unstructured interviews are characterised by a flexibility of approach to questioning.

·        Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardised techniques of recording information.

·        In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so requires.

·        He may even change the sequence of questions. He has relatively greater freedom while recording the responses to include some aspects and exclude others.

·        But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with another and the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult and time-consuming than that of the structured responses obtained in case of structured interviews.

·        Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of the interviewer.

·        Unstructured interview, however, happens to be the central technique of collecting information in case of exploratory or formulative research studies.

·        But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of structured interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for generalisation and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.

b)      Focused Interview:

·        Focussed interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects.

·        Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives.

·        The main task of the interviewer in case of a focussed interview is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues with which he seeks conversance.

·        Such interviews are used generally in the development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of unstructured interviews.

·        The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience.

·        The method of eliciting information under it is generally left to the interviewer’s discretion.

·        In case of non-directive interview, the interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.

·        The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondents’ feelings and beliefs and of the frame of reference within which such feelings and beliefs take on personal significance.

Despite the variations in interview-techniques, the major advantages and weaknesses of personal interviews can be enumerated in a general way. The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:

         i.            More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.

       ii.            Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.

      iii.            There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always there, especially in case of unstructured interviews.

     iv.            Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.

       v.            Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.

     vi.            Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.

    vii.            The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held.

  viii.            The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.

     ix.            The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.

       x.            The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method.

         i.            It is a very expensive method, especially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken.

       ii.            There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.

      iii.            Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.

     iv.            This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and re-calls upon the respondents are necessary.

       v.            The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.

     vi.            Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.

    vii.            Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.

  viii.            Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.

Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing:

·        For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and briefed.

·        They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and must possess the technical competence and necessary practical experience.

·        Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from instructions given to them for performing their job efficiently.

·        In addition, some provision should also be made in advance so that appropriate action may be taken if some of the selected respondents refuse to cooperate or are not available when an interviewer calls upon them.

·         Every effort should be made to create friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at ease while talking to and discussing with the interviewer.

·        The interviewer must ask questions properly and intelligently and must record the responses accurately and completely.

·        At the same time, the interviewer must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the respondent and must clear any doubt that the latter has.

·        The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased.

·        The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s answer but he must keep the direction of interview in his own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation and must make all possible effort to keep the respondent on the track.

c)      Telephone interviews:

This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:

                                 i.          It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

                               ii.          It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.

                              iii.          It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.

                             iv.          Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.

                               v.          There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response is generally very low.

                             vi.          Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.

                            vii.          Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.

                          viii.          At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.

                             ix.          No field staff is required.

                           x.             Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

But this system of collecting information is not free from demerits.

a.       Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.

b.      Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.

c.       Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.

d.      It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various questions.

e.       Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.

f.        Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.

Collection of Data through Questionnaires

·        In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.

·        A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms.

·        The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.

The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:

           i.            There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.

         ii.            It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.

        iii.            Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.

       iv.            Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.

         v.            Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

         i.            Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.

       ii.            It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.

      iii.            The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

     iv.            There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.

       v.            There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.

     vi.            It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.

    vii.            This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for testing the questionnaires. In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt very much. Pilot survey is infact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey. Such a survey, being conducted by experts, brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of the questionnaires and also of the survey techniques. From the experience gained in this way, improvement can be effected.

Main aspects of a questionnaire:

·        Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation.

·        Hence it should be very carefully constructed.

·        If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail. This fact requires us to study the main aspects of a questionnaire viz., the general form, question sequence and question formulation and wording.

Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:

a)      General form:

·        So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire.

·        Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions.

·         

·        The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents.

·        Resort is taken to this sort of standardisation to ensure that all respondents reply to the same set of questions.

·        The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning.

·        Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated alternatives.

·        Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified and comments in the respondent’s own words are held to the minimum.

·        When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire.

·        More specifically, we can say that in an unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies are to be taken down in the respondent’s own words to the extent possible; in some situations tape recorders may be used to achieve this goal.

·        Structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyse.

·        The provision of alternative replies, at times, helps to understand the meaning of the question clearly. But such questionnaires have limitations too.

·        For instance, wide range of data and that too in respondent’s own words cannot be obtained with structured questionnaires.

·        They are usually considered inappropriate in investigations where the aim happens to be to probe for attitudes and reasons for certain actions or feelings.

·        They are equally not suitable when a problem is being first explored and working hypotheses sought.

·        In such situations, unstructured questionnaires may be used effectively. Then on the basis of the results obtained in pretest (testing before final use) operations from the use of unstructured questionnaires, one can construct a structured questionnaire for use in the main study.

b) Question sequence:

·        In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire.

·        A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood.

·        The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning.

·        The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation.

·        The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest.

The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:

         i.            Questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;

       ii.            Questions of a personal character;

      iii.            Questions related to personal wealth, etc.

Following the opening questions, we should have questions that are really vital to the research problem and a connecting thread should run through successive questions. Ideally, the question-sequence should conform to the respondent’s way of thinking.

c) Question formulation and wording:

·        With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey.

·        Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan.

·        In general, all questions should meet the following standards—

(a) Should be easily understood;

(b) Should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;

(c) Should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking. (For instance, instead of asking. “How many razor blades do you use annually?” The more realistic question would be to ask, “How many razor blades did you use last week?”

^·          Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about two principal forms, viz., multiple choice question and the open-end question. In the former the respondent selects one of the alternative possible answers put to him, whereas in the latter he has to supply the answer in his own words.

^·          The question with only two possible answers (usually ‘Yes’ or ‘No’) can be taken as a special case of the multiple choice question, or can be named as a ‘closed question.’

^·          There are some advantages and disadvantages of each possible form of question. Multiple choice or closed questions have the advantages of easy handling, simple to answer, quick and relatively inexpensive to analyse.

^·          They are most amenable to statistical analysis. Sometimes, the provision of alternative replies helps to make clear the meaning of the question.

^·          But the main drawback of fixed alternative questions is that of “putting answers in people’s mouths” i.e., they may force a statement of opinion on an issue about which the respondent does not infact have any opinion.

^·          They are not appropriate when the issue under consideration happens to be a complex one and also when the interest of the researcher is in the exploration of a process.

^·          In such situations, open-ended questions which are designed to permit a free response from the respondent rather than one limited to certain stated alternatives are considered appropriate.

^·          Such questions give the respondent considerable latitude in phrasing a reply.

^·          Getting the replies in respondent’s own words is, thus, the major advantage of open-ended questions. But one should not forget that, from an analytical point of view, open-ended questions are more difficult to handle, raising problems of interpretation, comparability and interviewer bias.

^·          Researcher must pay proper attention to the wordings of questions since reliable and meaningful returns depend on it to a large extent. Since words are likely to affect responses, they should be properly chosen.

^·          Simple words, which are familiar to all respondents should be employed. Words with ambiguous meanings must be avoided.

^·          Similarly, danger words, catch-words or words with emotional connotations should be avoided. Caution must also be exercised in the use of phrases which reflect upon the prestige of the respondent. Question wording, in no case, should bias the answer. In fact, question wording and formulation is an art and can only be learnt by practice.

d) Essentials of a good questionnaire:

·        To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

·        Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.

·        Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire.

·        Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended. The latter types of questions are often difficult to analyse and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.

·        There should be some control questions in the questionnaire which indicate the reliability of the respondent. For instance, a question designed to determine the consumption of particular material may be asked

Collection of Data through Schedules

·        This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.

·        These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.

·        In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules.

·        Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms.

·        This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected.

·        The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the schedule.

·        Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross-examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, and hardworking and should have patience and perseverance.

·        This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organisations. Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.

Difference between Questionnaires and Schedules

·        Both questionnaire and schedule are popularly used methods of collecting data in research surveys.

·        There is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods and this fact has made many people to remark that from a practical point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same.

·        But from the technical point of view there is difference between the two. The important points of difference are as under:

·        The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender.

·        The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary.

·        To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents.

·        Here no field staff required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.

·        Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many return the questionnaire without answering all questions.

·        Bias due to non-response often remains indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because these are filled by

·         

·        enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions .But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating.

·        In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the identity of respondent is known.

·         

o   The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.

·        Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post. But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.

·        Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.

·        Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area.

·        Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly.

·        But in case of schedules, the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. As a result, the information collected through schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires.

·        The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators.

·        In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire must be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by respondents.

·        Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible while collecting data through questionnaires.

Some Other Methods of Data Collection

Let us consider some other methods of data collection, particularly used by big business houses in modern times.

a.      Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.

b.      Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by observation.

c.       Pantry audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of consumer’s pantry. The usual objective in a pantry audit is to find out what types of consumers buy certain products and certain brands, the assumption being that the contents of the pantry accurately portray consumer’s preferences. Quite often, pantry audits are supplemented by direct questioning relating to reasons and circumstances under which particular products were purchased in an attempt to relate these factors to purchasing habits. A pantry audit may or may not be set up as a panel operation, since a single visit is often considered sufficient to yield an accurate picture of consumers’ preferences. An important limitation of pantry audit approach is that, at times, it may not be possible to identify consumers’ preferences from the audit data alone, particularly when promotion devices produce a marked rise in sales.

d.      Consumer panels: An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as ‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on demands. In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time. Mostly consume panels are of two types viz., the transitory consumer panel and the continuing consumer panel. A transitory consumer panel is set up to measure the effect of a particular phenomenon. Usually such a panel is conducted on a before-and-after-basis. Initial interviews are conducted before the phenomenon takes place to record the attitude of the consumer.

e.       Use of mechanical devices: The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect information by way of indirect means. Eye camera, Pupilometric camera, Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture camera and Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed and commonly used by modern big business houses, mostly in the developed world for the purpose of collecting the required information.

f.        Projective techniques: Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as indirect interviewing techniques) for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges, or intentions which are such that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. In projective techniques the respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. Projective techniques play an important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys.

We may now briefly deal with the important projective techniques.

a.       Word association tests: These tests are used to extract information regarding such words which have maximum association. In this sort of test the respondent is asked to mention the first word that comes to mind, ostensibly without thinking, as the interviewer reads out each word from a list. If the interviewer says cold, the respondent may say hot and the like ones.

b.      Sentence completion tests: These tests happen to be an extension of the technique of word association tests. Under this, informant may be asked to complete a sentence (such as: persons who wear Khadi are...) to find association of Khadi clothes with certain personality characteristics. Several sentences of this type might be put to the informant on the same subject. Analysis of replies from the same informant reveals his attitude toward that subject, and the combination of these attitudes of all the sample members is then taken to reflect the views of the population.

c.       Story completion tests: Such tests are a step further wherein the researcher may contrive stories instead of sentences and ask the informants to complete them. The respondent is given just enough of story to focus his attention on a given subject and he is asked to supply a conclusion to the story.

d.      Verbal projection tests: These are the tests wherein the respondent is asked to comment on or to explain what other people do. For example, why do people smoke? Answers may reveal the respondent’s own motivations.

e.       Pictorial techniques:  There are several pictorial techniques. The important ones are as follows:

f.        Thematic apperception test (T.A.T.): The TAT consists of a set of pictures (some of the pictures deal with the ordinary day-to-day events while others may be ambiguous pictures of unusual situations) that are shown to respondents who are asked to describe what they think the pictures represent. The replies of respondents constitute the basis for the investigator to draw inferences about their personality structure, attitudes, etc.

g.       Rosenzweig test: This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have a series of cartoons with words inserted in ‘balloons’ above. The respondent is asked to put his own words in an empty balloon space provided for the purpose in the picture. From what the respondents write in this fashion, the study of their attitudes can be made.

h.       Rorschach test: This test consists of ten cards having prints of inkblots. The design happens to be symmetrical but meaningless. The respondents are asked to describe what they perceive in such symmetrical inkblots and the responses are interpreted on the basis of some pre-determined psychological framework. This test is frequently used but the problem of validity still remains a major problem of this test.

i.         Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT): This test from W.H. Holtzman is a modification of the Rorschach Test explained above. This test consists of 45 inkblot cards (and not 10 inkblots as we find in case of Rorschach Test) which are based on colour, movement, shading and other factors involved in inkblot perception.

j.        Tomkins-Horn picture arrangement test: This test is designed for group administration. It consists of twenty-five plates, each containing three sketches that may be arranged in different ways to portray sequence of events. The respondent is asked to arrange them in a sequence which he considers as reasonable. The responses are interpreted as providing evidence confirming certain norms, respondent’s attitudes, etc.

k.      Play techniques: Under play techniques subjects are asked to improvise or act out a situation in which they have been assigned various roles. The researcher may observe such traits as hostility, dominance, sympathy, prejudice or the absence of such traits. These techniques have been used for knowing the attitudes of younger ones through manipulation of dolls

l.         Quizzes, tests and examinations: This is also a technique of extracting information regarding specific ability of candidates indirectly. In this procedure both long and short questions are framed to test through them the memorising and analytical ability of candidates.

m.    Sociometry: It  is a technique for describing the social relationships among individuals in a group. In an indirect way, sociometry attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between individuals by asking them to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations.

n.       Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents.

o.      Content-analysis: Content-analysis consists of analysing the contents of documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed. Content-analysis prior to 1940’s was mostly quantitative analysis of documentary materials concerning certain characteristics that can be identified and counted. But since 1950’s content-analysis is mostly qualitative analysis concerning the general import or message of the existing documents. “The difference is somewhat like that between a casual interview and depth interviewing.” 

Collection of Secondary Data

·        Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been collected and analysed by someone else.

·        When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.

·        Usually published data are available in:

(a) Various publications of the central, state are local governments;

(b) Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and    their    subsidiary organisations;

(c) Technical and trade journals;

(d) Books, magazines and newspapers;

(e) Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;

(f) Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.

By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess following characteristics:

a.      Reliability of data:  The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:

(a) Who collected the data?

(b) What were the sources of data?

(c) Were they collected by using proper methods?

(d) At what time were they collected?

(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?

(f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

b.      Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by the researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinise the definition of various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should not be used.

c.       Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection

Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judiciously select the method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:

a.      Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.

b.      Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this limitation.

c.       Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.

d.      Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data.

Case Study Method

Meaning:

·        The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire community.

·        It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations.

·        The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration.

·        The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.

·        According to H. Odum, “The case study method is a technique by which individual factor whether it be an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group is analysed in its relationship to any other in the group.”

Characteristics: The important characteristics of the case study method are as under:

         i.            Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for his study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same comprehensively.

       ii.            Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details. Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing correct inferences.

      iii.            In the context of this method we make complete study of the social unit covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated totality.

     iv.            Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of life. As such, case study deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life. For instance, under this method we not only study how many crimes a man has done but shall peep into the factors that forced him to commit crimes when we are making a case study of a man as a criminal. The objective of the study may be to suggest ways to reform the criminal.

       v.            In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of causal factors.

     vi.            Under case study method the behaviour pattern of the concerning unit is studied directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.

    vii.            Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing them, and thus it enables the generalised knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence, generalised social science may get handicapped.

Evolution and scope:

·        The case study method is a widely used systematic field research technique in sociology these days. The credit for introducing this method to the field of social investigation goes to Frederic Le Play who used it as a hand-maiden to statistics in his studies of family budgets.

·        Herbert Spencer was the first to use case material in his comparative study of different cultures.

·        Dr. William Healy resorted to this method in his study of juvenile delinquency, and considered it as a better method over and above the mere use of statistical data.

·        Similarly, anthropologists, historians, novelists and dramatists have used this method concerning problems pertaining to their areas of interests.

·        Even management experts use case study methods for getting clues to several management problems. In brief, case study method is being used in several disciplines. Not only this, its use is increasing day by day.

Assumptions: The case study method is based on several assumptions. The important assumptions may be listed as follows:

         i.            The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human behaviour may vary according to situations.

       ii.            The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.

      iii.            The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.

Major phases involved:  Major phases involved in case study are as follows:

         i.            Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investigated or the unit of attention.

       ii.            Collection of data, examination and history of the given phenomenon.

      iii.            Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment.

     iv.            Application of remedial measures i.e., treatment and therapy (this phase is often characterised as case work).

v.              Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment applied.

Advantages:

There are several advantages of the case study method that follow from the various characteristics outlined above. Mention may be made here of the important advantages.

         i.            Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method enables us to understand fully the behaviour pattern of the concerned unit. In the words of Charles Horton Cooley, “case study deepens our perception and gives us a clearer insight into life…. It gets at behaviour directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.”

       ii.            Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlightened record of personal experiences which would reveal man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive him to action along with the forces that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour.

      iii.            This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit and its relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding environment.

     iv.            It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing them. Case studies, thus, enable the generalised knowledge to get richer and richer.

       v.            The method facilitates intensive study of social units which is generally not possible if we use either the observation method or the method of collecting information through schedules. This is the reason why case study method is being frequently used, particularly in social researches.

     vi.            Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in the task of constructing the appropriate questionnaire or schedule for the said task requires thorough knowledge of the concerning universe.

    vii.            The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case study method depending upon the prevalent circumstances. In other words, the use of different methods such as depth interviews, questionnaires, documents, study reports of individuals, letters, and the like is possible under case study method.

  viii.            Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of units to be studied along with the nature of the universe. This is the reason why at times the case study method is alternatively known as “mode of organising data”.

     ix.            This method is a means to well understand the past of a social unit because of its emphasis of historical analysis. Besides, it is also a technique to suggest measures for improvement in the context of the present environment of the concerned social units.

       x.            Case studies constitute the perfect type of sociological material as they represent a real record of personal experiences which very often escape the attention of most of the skilled researchers using other techniques.

     xi.            Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his analysing ability and skill.

    xii.            This method makes possible the study of social changes. On account of the minute study of the different facets of a social unit, the researcher can well understand the social change then and now. This also facilitates the drawing of inferences and helps in maintaining the continuity of the research process. In fact, it may be considered the gateway to and at the same time the final destination of abstract knowledge.

  xiii.            Case study techniques are indispensable for therapeutic and administrative purposes. They are also of immense value in taking decisions regarding several management problems. Case data are quite useful for diagnosis, therapy and other practical case problems.

Limitations: Important limitations of the case study method may as well be highlighted.

         i.            Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in case studies is often not comparable. Since the subject under case study tells history in his own words, logical concepts and units of scientific classification have to be read into it or out of it by the investigator.

       ii.            Read Bain does not consider the case data as significant scientific data since they do not provide knowledge of the “impersonal, universal, non-ethical, non-practical, repetitive aspects of phenomena.”  Real information is often not collected because the subjectivity of the researcher does enter in the collection of information in a case study.

      iii.            The danger of false generalisation is always there in view of the fact that no set rules are followed in collection of the information and only few units are studied.

     iv.            It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure. More time is needed under case study method since one studies the natural history cycles of social units and that too minutely.

       v.            The case data are often vitiated because the subject, according to Read Bain, may write what he thinks the investigator wants; and the greater the rapport, the more subjective the whole process is.

     vi.            Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at times, and as such the usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt.

    vii.            Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use it in case of a big society. Sampling is also not possible under a case study method.

  viii.            Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study method. He often thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and can himself answer about it. In case the same is not true, then consequences follow. In fact, this is more the fault of the researcher rather than that of the case method.

Conclusion:

Despite the above stated limitations, we find that case studies are being undertaken in several disciplines, particularly in sociology, as a tool of scientific research in view of the several advantages indicated earlier. Most of the limitations can be removed if researchers are always conscious of these and are well trained in the modern methods of collecting case data and in the scientific techniques of assembling, classifying and processing the same. Besides, case studies, in modern times, can be conducted in such a manner that the data are amenable to quantification and statistical treatment. Possibly, this is also the reason why case studies are becoming popular day by day.